Pandemic Discoveries: Part II
Ghost Pipes
Monotropa uniflora
Home Woods
Summer 2020
In Part I, my Pandemic Discovery, or Pandemic Surprise, was the accidental sighting of Cranefly Orchid in my Home Woods.
An even greater surprise happened during the late summer of 2020, even more unexpected than Cranefly Orchid. This discovery was a plant not often encountered, in general (though not uncommon throughout most of its range). In fact, it is often mistaken for a fungus but it is a true flowering plant.
And What to My Wondering Eyes Did Appear ...
I was wandering my Home Woods in late July, 2020, near the log I had designated as my “Sit-Spot” a couple of years earlier, in the upper part of the woods. As I walked by a little almost-empty spot of ground, something caught my eyes. I think it did so because I'd never seen it in my woods before (and I know my woods very well), but I had seen it a few choice times in my life.
There it was, a pale stem, swollen top drooping down from the top of the stem. It seemed almost opaque, but also seemed to glow there against the cocoa-colored ground.
Could it be?? I moved in closer, carefully. [gasp!] Yes!! Ghost Pipes!!!
They are ghostly-looking things, especially turning up in an unexpected spot. And, there were more coming up!
I took photos to share with friends, but also to prove to myself that they were truly there. A couple of friends, Gary and Lisa, saw my photos, contacted me, and came out to see the plants, as excited as I was. We dipped into the edge of the woods, went down the slope, hopped the creek near Cottonwood Pond, worked our way up the next slope, and walked to the shady spot, where these pale plants were clustered, like an anomaly. Gary and Lisa stayed there awhile admiring the plants and taking photos from various angles.
I went to the spot periodically to check on the Ghost Pipes. Some more showed up in the cluster, pulling their heads from the soil.
Through the Ghost Pipes season ...
I was able to watch them in each stage of growth – as white bumps at the soil line growing larger, then as an inverted U shape, then the flower head pulled from the ground while the plant was still bent, then the stem straightening, holding its flower head like a handkerchief held by fingertips.
What's in a Name?
My preferred common name for them is Ghost Pipes because that encompasses the ghostly appearance as well as the shape of the plant. A more common common name, the one I'd mainly heard from childhood on, is Indian Pipes. This is presumably due to a resemblance to Native American peace pipes. But, the name is a remnant of those times when anything Native American was called “Indian”, used in trite, repetitive ways that almost never reflected knowledge or understanding. So, I don't like to use the name “Indian Pipes”.
There is also the name One-Flowered Indian Pipe. Also Ghost Plant, Ghost Flower (though at least one other kind of plant is called that), Corpse Plant (I have to say I'm intrigued by that one – maybe I could go as a Corpse Plant for Halloween) and Ice Plant – all very descriptive. Most people would be puzzled by the name Bird's Nest, but it refers to the dense, tangled mass of roots that we don't see unless we dig up the plant (note: never did up this plant – more on that later).
The name One-Flowered Indian Pipe is the common name that comes closest to the meaning of the botanical name. The genus name Monotropa translates as “one-turn”, referring to the one down-turn of the stem, it's pipe-like shape. The specific name uniflora, as you might guess, means “one flower”, since each stem just has one flower (a very similar species, Monotropa hypopitys, or Pinesap, has multiple flower heads on each stem and tends to be more colorful).
Monotropa uniflora is a perennial plant, giving me more hope that I'll see it in this spot again. But, you can't just simply get one and plant it in a spot and expect it will grow there. It won't transplant well because there is a very unique relationship under the soil that is essential to Ghost Pipes' nutrition (more on that coming up).
Ghosts in the Woods
Why aren't Ghost Pipes green, like most other plants? Most plants need sunlight to prosper. Sunlight is captured by the leaves, using the green pigment chlorophyll (in the leaves' chloroplasts) to manufacture food from carbon dioxide and water, in a process called photosynthesis. This food feeds the plant, sending nutrients from leaves to roots (food is also obtained from the soil via root tips).
But Ghost Pipes, and some other plants, need no chlorophyll because they derive nutrition elsewhere. Examples of some such plants in Indiana are Beech Drops (Epifagus virginiana) and Cancer Root/Bear Corn/Squaw Root (Conopholis americana). Such plants are called heterotrophic, meaning they must get their nutrition from other organisms.
There are two groups of heterotrophs. One, parasitic plants, get their organic carbon through structures called haustoria, projections from the parasitic plant that derive nutrition directly from the green plant to which it attaches. One example is Dodder (genus Cuscuta), which has haustoria along its threadlike, twining stems that wrap around green plants. The above-mentioned Cancer Root (Conopholis americana) has haustoria on its roots that attach to the roots of some species of Oak trees.
Ghost Pipes belong to the second group of heterotrophs, called mycotrophic plants. This also includes many Orchid species. “Myco-” refers to fungus, particularly mycorrhizal fungus (you can see strands of these underground, or under the bark of dying trees or decaying logs). Mycorrhizal fungi function as the “middle man” between the green plant host and the non-green mycotrophic plant. The fungi is attached to the roots of the green plant in a beneficial, nutritional relationship, providing minerals to the plant from the soil via hyphae (fungal strands), while the green plant provides food (manufactured using sunlight) to the roots and fungi. They truly help each other out! But, the mycotrophic plant (like Ghost Pipes) comes into the situation and, essentially, parasitizes the fungal hyphae. It reverses that flow of carbon and other nutrients from the green plant, via the fungi, to its own roots! You might say it uses sunlight to get energy, but in a very convoluted, complicated way!! As one author stated, Ghost Pipes “have flipped the food chain upside down”(8)!
Ghost Pipes have a thick, tangled mass of roots that don't have to dip far into the soil (6). Instead, they tap into specific species of mycorrhizal fungi (in the family Russulaceae) that are associated with certain kinds of trees, though one article states “.. they are not always found in the company of any specific tree” (6).
I stood near my patch of Ghost Pipes and looked around at the nearby trees, wondering which tree was actually feeding this patch. The closest trees are Red Oak, White Oak, Hackberry, Black Cherry, Sassafrass, Tuliptree, White Ash, Black Walnut, Sugar Maple, and some others.
But, mostly I wondered at the amazing process going on under my feet, and that there are so many essential processes beyond our sight.
At Home in the Woods
But, how did this patch of Ghost Pipes end up here?? I hadn't seen them here before, so they hadn't come up from established roots. Seeds? The seeds of Monotropa uniflora are like dust, easily blown to places far from their source. One source (5) says that they range between 0.6-0.8 mm long. Just think of it – some dust-like seeds may have happened to land on this spot and germinated. And this spot had the right trees with just the right mycorrizal fungi associated with their roots, and the new Ghost Pipe sprouts were in just the right place.
Is that how it worked? I feel I need to learn more. And I have to wonder – from where did those seeds originate? Where was that other flower or patch? And how far away? It's not like this is a forested area. It's mainly agricultural land with patches of small woods. Or, could these fine seeds have arrived with a bird or other animal? If so, it's possible to travel farther that way.
This spot must have been just the right habitat, also. For one thing, since Ghost Pipes do not need sunlight to manufacture food, they can thrive in shady places. The article from Wild Adirondacks (11) states that it “... grows in a wide variety of well-drained, shady sites ...”. The Mountain Lake Biological Station site from Virginia (6) says they “... occur almost exclusively in rich, deciduous woods with abundant organic matter … “. Well, that describes the part of my woods where I found them, though the spot itself did not seem deep in organic matter – the soil was exposed. Homoya (1) says that they are “ … found mostly in rich mesic upland forests … “ and lists some companion plants as “Sugar Maple, Silvery Spleenwort, Anise Root, Horse Balm, Hog-Peanut”. The Sugar Maple is true for me, but not the other plants, though there are many species of woodland plants here.
Whatever happened, it seemed magical.
Family Ties
Monotropa uniflora is classified under Ericaceae, the Heath family. This is a broad family of plants that grow in many types of habitats throughout the world. Many are woody and evergreen. This varied family includes plants such as blueberry, cranberry, huckleberry, rhododendron, azalea, mountain laurel, pipsissewa, manzanita, and wintergreen. They do have a few things in common, such as 4-5 petals, 4-5 sepals, twice as many stamens as petals, fruits typically a capsule or berry, and a shallow-spreading root system (most of it within a few inches of the soil surface) with no root hairs (so, they need consistent moisture). Ghost Pipes exhibit these common characteristics, including the description of the root mass I gave earlier (it helps them to grow in that rich, shady place with plenty of organic matter, which conserves moisture near the roots).
Descriptions of Monotropa uniflora vary with sources, concerning their size, which makes me wonder if the size varies with locations within their range or with micro-habitats. Generally, the plant grows from 4”-10” tall (I did not measure mine). The stems are hairless (another difference from Pinesap) and they are cylindrical in cross-section. Along the stem are tiny, scale-like leaves (not needing to capture sunlight) and they are alternately arranged.
The plants are usually found in small clusters (like mine), though they can be alone. A friend told me of masses of them she found near Lake Michigan, so they also are not always in small clusters. The stems can break easily when new. The plant is usually white or cream-colored, sometimes with some pink hues, and sometimes with black specks.
Making an Appearance
The first thing one sees of a plant is a little white bump. This is the top of the curve of stem. Eventually the top part of the stem pulls the flower head from the soil and lifts up. But, it usually keeps the flower head in that drooping position that resembles a pipe. A recent rainfall generally encourages the plants to grow and rise.
The flower has an unusual appearance, too, besides being ghostly, as it hangs from the stem with its narrow, bell-like shape. It is “randomly symmetrical” and has no obvious floral scent. The 4-5 petals and 4-5 sepals are scale-like, from 1/2”-3/4” long, the petals longer than the sepals and also lasting longer. The petals surround ten to twelve stamens (they have the pollen) and the stamens surround a single, stout style (the part containing the ovaries).
The blooming period is variable for the cluster of plants, but not long, happening for one to two weeks. The flowers bloom anytime from early summer to early autumn. The short bloom time could be one of the reasons people do not come upon them or notice them often (besides the fact that some might think they are a fungus, not a flowering plant).
After maturity, the flower opens and rises slightly upward, preventing rain from entering the flower, but making it more accessible to pollinators. The flower is pollinated by small bumblebees, some fly species, and other nectar-seeking insects, but the bumblebee is the most important to the Ghost Pipes for dispersing pollen and cross-pollinating the flowers. Pollinators access both nectar and pollen from the flower as “floral rewards”.
And, Then What?
After successful pollination, the flower head turns straight upwards and develops a five-celled seed capsule containing those tiny, fine, dust-like seeds. Seeds are dispersed by wind after the capsule opens. Though most Ghost Pipe flowers bend down from the stem until pollination, some of them may stand straight up before pollination.
I visited my patch more frequently as time went on, wanting to document every step along the way, all the way to seed capsules opening. I watched for the flower heads to stand up, the sure sign of pollination.
I'm sorry to say that not a single one ever stood up!! They did develop black spots, but some flowers have those, anyway. However, over time the black spots were more numerous, and getting larger.
The Waning Days
When a Ghost Pipe flower is dying, it gradually turns black, shrivels, and disappears.
That's exactly what mine did, without ever lifting their heads. Somehow this patch was not visited by pollinators, or no insects successfully cross-pollinated the flowers. I wish I would have had more time to spend just sitting near the patch, watching, seeing if any insects visited.
Though this was a disappointment, I had hopes for seeing the plants come up again in 2021.
Encore??
When I went to the spot this past summer (2021), I saw a tiny white bump on the soil. Upon closer inspection, I determined it was a Ghost Pipe coming up!
Over time I found a few more of those white bumps. I kept checking, and some of them were starting to rise more from the soil, looking more like U-shapes. They were coming up! But, they were seeming to take a long time. Was I just being impatient, or was this a normal amount of time?
I did not get into the woods as often as I wanted. The next time I checked, there was nothing. Nada. Not even any little white bumps on the soil line. Not even any blackened, shriveled plants on the ground. Maybe they came up and went through their life cycle while I was gone, but it really wasn't enough time for them to have done that. I certainly would have seen, at least, residue of finished plants.
So, who knows if they will show up again next summer? I plan to do a better job of checking on them often, for one thing. And, I have hope that not really seeing them this year may not be such a bad thing. These are plants that don't come up and bloom every year, necessarily, which is another reason people don't encounter them much.
I have one wire flag marking the spot. But, maybe I need to put a few flags around the spot, a good distance away from where the cluster was, but close enough together to define the spot. One thing I wondered about was whether or not the spot was damaged by someone walking over it. No one I know of has been walking in my woods this summer except the young man who is allowed to bow-hunt (or, rather, a friend of his checking his deer stands, since the young man broke his foot). This spot could be on the “trail” they use to go check the stands, and they would not have known, by a single flag, what was there. Ghost Pipes do not like to grow in disturbed areas.
Whatever the reason, I'm not giving up hope. And, even if they never come up again … that one time was really magical, and ghostly!
Some extra notes on Monotropa uniflora:
Uses by humans:
(Note: these are simply historical references and not meant as suggestions for treatment. Only trained and educated herbalists should suggest uses for unfamiliar plants. M. uniflora may be toxic. Also, populations should remain undisturbed and not removed for any use.)
(11) – Cherokee pulverized the roots to use as an anti-convulsive. Mohegans used an infusion of roots or leaves as an analgesic. Cree chewed the flowers to treat toothache.
(8) – A constituent in the plant acts as a nervine, sedative, and pain reliever, and it was used to treat seizures. The clear fluid from the stems was used by Native Americans to treat eye problems. M. uniflora contains salicylic acid, which can be used to treat warts.
(5) – Since the late 19th century, M. uniflora was used to reduce anxiety (anxiolytic)
(2) – Native Americans used the clear juice from the stem as eye medicine and to sharpen vision.
Uses by animals other than pollinators:
(4) – Thrips in the group Monotropae feed on the flowers.
(4) – Bears have been known to eat the plants.
Sources - Books:
(1) Homoya, Michael A.
Wildflowers and Ferns of Indiana Forests: A Field Guide
Indiana University Press; 2011
(2) Horn, Dennis, and Tavia Cathcart
Wildflowers of Tennessee, the Ohio Valley, and the Southern Appalachians
Lone Pine Publishing; 2005
Sources - Web Sites:
(3) Go Botony (New England)
https://gobotony.nativeplanttrust.org/species/monotropa/uniflora
Good for specific details of the flower (list of characteristics), photo gallery.
(4) Illinois Wildflowers
www.illinoiswildflowers.info/woodland/plants/indian_pipe.htm
Much description of plant, habitat, etc.
(5) inaturalist
https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/49477-Monotropa-uniflora
Information (Wikipedia), photo gallery, many references.
(6) Mountain Lake Biological Station – University of Virginia
July 8, 2013
https://mlbs.virginia.edu/organism/monotropa_uniflora
Includes a photo of the stalk bases with roots and mycorrhizal fungi.
(7) Ontario Wildflowers
www.ontariowilflowers.com/main/species.php?id=197
Excellent photos, including both open and closed seed heads.
(8) Talk Plant
“Monotropa uniflora: how a plant conned fungi”
Dr. Rupesh Paudyal
May 27, 2017
www.talkplant.com/real-hustle-plant-conned-fungi
(9) Tom Volk's Fungus of the Month for October 2002 (Wisconsin)
https://botit.botony.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/oct.2002.html
Specifics on nutrition, mycorrhizal fungi, including an animated diagram showing how Monotropa uniflora obtains food. References to various study papers.
(10) US Forest Service
https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/beauty/mycotrophic/monotropa_uniflora.shtml
https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/beauty/mycotrophic/whatarethey.shtml
Explains “mycotrophic”.
(11) Wild Adirondacks
https://wildadirondacks.org/adirondack-wildflowers-indian-pipe-monotropa-uniflora.html
Discusses uses of the plant and provides many references.
Stories of where I have seen Monotropa uniflora before:
** When I was a child, and into my early teen years, my family went on camping trips. There was a different theme every year. One year (I was probably about 11 or 12 years old) we went to the Smoky Mountains. While camping in Tennessee, we learned about Ghost Pipes (called Indian Pipes, in this situation) in the nature center, and that they could be seen along certain trails. Dad took us on one of those trails the next day. Sure enough, we found Ghost Pipes along the way!!! Coming upon them seemed very mysterious and magical. I remember it as a cluster of maybe 10 or so plants, at different heights, very pale, but with some slight pinkish-ness. There among all the lush greenery, they were an unusual treat, and we were excited to find this strange plant we had just learned about.
** Fast-forward to me in my 50's on a field trip sponsored by the Indiana Native Plant Society, at the Fern Cliff Nature Preserve in west-central Indiana. The walk was led by Bil McKnight, who was focusing on mosses and liverworts (and, of course, ferns). In this steeply hilly place, he led the good-sized group up and down deep ravines, not always on the trail. We came down one steep hill to a flat, shaded valley and walked across. Partway across there was a shaft of sunlight coming through the canopy, lighting a spot on the ground. And right within that shaft of light was a cluster of Ghost Pipes! These had more pink to them than any others I've seen, yet a soft, delicate pink. We walked around it in amazement, looking at it from various directions, and a number of us snapped photos. I hope my photos are still … somewhere.
May you have at least one magical moment coming upon Ghost Pipes. If you have … please tell me about it!
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